
PORTO RICO AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 

FRANK D. GARDNER, Special Agent in Charge, 

Mayaguez, May, 1904. 



Bulletin No. 4. 



Propagation and Marketing 



ing of Oranges in Porto Rico. 



BY 



H. C. HENRICKSEN, 

Assistant Horticulturist, Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station. 



UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF 

OFFICE OE EXPERIMENT STATIONS, 

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 




WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
1904. 




Book_ 



3t1- 



PORTO RICO AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 

FRANK D. GARDNER, Special Agent in Charge, 
Mayaguez, May, 1904. 



Bulletin No. 4. 






Propagation and Marketing of Oranges in Porto Rico. 



BY 



H? C. HENPJCKSEN, 

i 

Assistant Horticulturist, Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station. 



UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF 

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS, 

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 




WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

1904. 



< ^T\ 



\ 






PORTO RICO AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 

[Under the supervision of A. C. True, Director of the Office of Experiment .Stations, 
United States Department of Agriculture.] 

STATION' STAFF. 

Frank D. Gardner/' Special Agent in Charge. 

0. W. Barrett, Entomologist and Botanist. 

J. W. Van Leenhoff, Coffee Expert. 

J. Van Leenhoff, Jr., Tobacco Expert. 

H. C. Henricksen, Assistant Horticulturist. 

E. F. Curt, Farm Superintendent. 

Edward C. Howe, 6 Clerk am} Stenographer. 

a Succeeded by D. W. May, May 1, 1904. b Succeeded by Jessie F. Springer, May 1, 1904. 

2 

JUN 8'7 1907 
D. ofD. 




LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Mayagiies, P. i?., May 16, 1904. 
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a bulletin on propaga- 
tion and marketing of oranges in Porto Rico, by Mr. H. C. Henrick- 
sen, assistant horticulturist of this station, and respectfully recom- 
mend its publication as Bulletin No. 4 of the Porto Rico Experiment 
Station. 

The growing of oranges and other citrus fruits in Porto Rico on a 
commercial scale has commenced since the American occupation and 
at the present writing has not gone beyond the experimental stage. 
The indications, however, are favorable, and on the strength of these 
considerable areas are being planted. It is estimated that fully 6,000 
acres have already been planted to budded trees secured either from 
Florida or from local nurseries. 

The orange as grown in Porto Rico for many years prior to American 
occupation was propagated only from seeds, and as a result the fruits 
represent a wide range in characteristics, such as appearance, flavor, 
number of seeds, "rag" content (tough, indigestible inside fiber), and 
time of ripening. Some of the fruits are worthless, some are poor, 
while many are good, and a few are as tine as can be found in either 
California or Florida. It is from the few trees that produce really 
choice fruits, adapted to particular uses, that the growers should 
propagate rather than to plant large areas budded from varieties that 
are new to Porto Rico, until such time as it is proved that introduced 
varieties will succeed well. 

It is with a view of instructing the small nurserymen and planters 
throughout the island, or those men who are without experience in 
propagating and growing oranges and other citrus fruits, that this 
bulletin has been prepared. No attempt is made to go into fuller 
details that would be required for the larger nurserymen, who as a 
rule have already mastered the subject and gained the knowledge and 
experience that insures success. 



By using varieties adapted to our climate, planting on soils suited 
to the product, in localities that are easily accessible from shipping 
points, and with proper packing and shipping facilities there is little 
doubt that orange growing in Porto Eico will prove both successful 
and profitable. 

Very respectfully, Frank D. Gardner, 

Special A</< nt in < 'harge. 
Dr. A. C. True, 

Director, Office of Experiment Stations, 

U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

Recommended for publication: 
A. C. True. Director. 

Publication authorized: 
James Wilson, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 






CONTENTS. 



Introduction 7 

Propagation by seeds 7 

Seed selection 7 

Disadvantages of seedling trees 8 

Propagatit >n by budding 8 

Budding stuck 8 

The seed 1 ie< 1 9 

The nursery 9 

Transplanting 10 

Selection of bud wood 10 

Cutting the scions 10 

Budding knife 12 

Budding tape 12 

How to hud 12 

Forcing the buds 14 

Planting a grove 15 

Preparing the land 15 

Staking out the grove 15 

Digging the holes 10 

Planting the trees 16 

Cultivate m and manuring 17 

Working over old trees 18 

Crown grafting 18 

Top grafting 19 

Top budding 20 

Dormant budding , 20 

Inarching and bridge grafting 20 

Marketing 21 

Picking and curing 21 

Grading 22 

Sizing 22 

Packing 24 

, Shipping 24 

5 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PLATES. 



Page. 



Plate I. Fig. 1. — Leaf forms of citrus trees: a, Rough lemon; b, pomelo; '■, 
sour orange; d, sweet orange; e, lime. Fig. 2. — Forms of bud wood: 

a, Young, angular; h, round, green; c, older, gray-streaked 8 

II. Fig. 1. — Method of shield budding: a, Cutting the bud; b, bud; r, 
making the incision; d, bud partly inserted; e, bud wrapped. Fig. 
2. — Angular sprig budding: «,Bud; h, bud inserted; c, sprig bud; 
d, sprig bud inserted and wrapped *. 12 

III. Fig. 1. — Forcing the buds: a, Bud unwrapped and girdled; h, bud 

tied up; o, stock cut off. Fig. 2. — Crown grafting, with grafts 
inserted 14 

IV. Fig. 1. — Tree sawed off for top grafting. Fig. 2. — Cleft grafting: a, 

Showing the cleft; b, grafts inserted 18 

V. Tree pruned for top budding and branches cut off immediately above 

the buds to show places of insertion 20 

VI. Fig. 1. — Dormant budding: ".Pud: b, piece of bark removed; c,bud 
inserted. Fig. 2. — Bridge grafting and inarching: a, b, c, Bridge 
grafts ; d, inarch 20 

TEXT FIGURES. 

Fig. 1. Pruning and budding tools: a, Pruning saw; b, large pruning shears; 

c, hand pruning shears; d, pruning knife; e, budding knife 11 

2. » i rafts covered up 19 

3. Orange sizer 22 

4. Showing method of packing oranges (from Florida Sta. Bui. 63) 23 

6 



PROPAGATION AND MARKETING OF ORANGES IN 

PORTO RICO. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The orange can not be successfully propagated from cuttings, but it 
is well adapted to the method of seed propagation, as the seeds ger- 
minate readily. This method is undesirable, however, as the orange 
does not reproduce itself true to seed. Therefore, wherever it is 
grown extensively for commercial purposes it is always propagated by 
budding or grafting on seedling stocks. 

PROPAGATION BY SEEDS. 

An abundance of orange trees growing wild in a certain locality will 
indicate the natural fitness of that locality for orange culture, but does 
not by any means show that a cultivated orange tree will succeed as well 
as the wild specimen. 

Under natural conditions the fruits drop and the seeds scatter, and 
if conditions are favorable germination takes place. But out of the 
thousands of seeds germinating each season only a few seedlings can 
be found next season, and perhaps a couple of years hence there will 
be but one or two sturdy specimens left. If those same seeds were 
planted and cared for nearly all of them would probably grow to 
maturity, but certainly not all would succeed as well, even under the 
improved cultural conditions, as the natural selections. 

SEED SELECTION. 

When a seedling orchard is desired seeds for planting should be 
selected onl} T from those trees and fruits that possess the characters 
desired by the grower. The tree should be healthy and vigorous and 
have but few thorns. It should be isolated as much as possible from 
other trees in order to prevent cross breeding. The fruit should be 
well formed and of a uniform size. For the orange, sizes from 2f| to 
.'I! inches in diameter will answer the market requirements better than 
smaller or larger sizes. The peel should be thin, but tough and 
elastic. The rag (a term designating the fiber inclosing the individual 
segments) should be thin and transparent, and the core should be 

7 



small. Of seeds there should be but very few. The taste should be 
sweet without being insipid, with a rich, delicate orange flavor. 

In Porto Rico the time of ripening should be either very early or 
very late. For early, from September 1 to December 1, and for late, 
from April 1 to July 1. 

DISADVANTAGES OF SEEDLING TREES. 

After all the trouble to which the grower may have gone in select- 
ing seeds, the fact still remains that he can not know with certainty 
what the result will be before the tree grows up and bears fruit. No 
seedling possesses the absolute inherent characters of the parent 
plant, although some will reproduce nearly true to seed. In the 
orange, however, the true reproductive character can not be relied 
upon and it will often happen, in spite of all the precautions taken, 
that the fruit of a tree will be far different from the parent fruit from 
which the seeds were planted many years before. 

The seedling tree in Porto Rico usually grows too tall, which greatly 
increases the cost of picking the fruit. It is very often thorny, mak- 
ing it disagreeable to handle and spoiling a large amount of fruit; 
besides, the average seedling does not bear at as early an age as the 
budded trees of most of the named varieties. 

PROPAGATION BY BUDDING. 

Most of the disadvantages of seedling trees can be eliminated by 
means of bud propagation of selected varieties, which method is 
almost exclusive^ used where citrus fruits are grown for commercial 
purposes. When budding is to be practiced, seeds from one of the 
best locally adapted species of the citrus family should be planted for 
the production of seedlings to bud upon. The resulting plants, called 
budding stock, may then be budded with any desirable variety of 
orange. 

BUDDING STOCK. 

In Florida the following species are used for budding stock: Rough 
lemon, pomelo, sour orange, sweet orange, and lime (PI. I, tig. 1). 

The rough lemon grows very vigorously, with an extensive but 
shallow root system. It will grow on land where the sweet orange 
would perish, and is well adapted to dry and sterile localities, but will 
also thrive very well on low moist soil. 

The pomelo stands next to the rough lemon in vigor; but while 
it thrives on nearly all kinds of soil, it should not be planted on 
extremely poor soil nor on that which is excessively wet or dry. 

The sour orange is probably the most satisfactory budding stock. 
Its root system is well balanced, deeper than the pomelo and rough 
lemon, but with shorter lateral roots. It is probably inferior to the 



Bui. 4, Porto Rico Agr. Expt. Station, Dept. Agr 



Plate I. 




Fig. I.- 



-Leaf Forms of Citrus Trees-. ". Rough Lemon; b, Pomelo; 
d, Sweet Orange; e, Lime. 



Sour Orange; 




Fig. 2.— Forms of Bud Wood: a, Young, Angular; b, Round, Green; e, Older, 

Gray Streaked. 



9 

rough lemon under extreme conditions, and may not be as vigorous. 
But on low undrained land it should be used in preference to any 
other as it is practically immune to foot rot. a disease which is often 
quite severe on sweet orange and which may attack rough lemon and 
pomelo when planted under those conditions. 

The sweet orange can not be recommended for extensive use as 
budding stock in Porto Rico, as it seems to be of much slower growth 
there than the rough lemon and pomelo. 

The lime is not often used as budding stock and has no merit as 
such, except in very rocky soil, where it will take root and thrive in 
crevices where no other citrus tree would live. It should not be 
extensively planted by beginners in orange culture, as it is difficult 
to bud. 

THE SEED BED. 

The seeds intended for planting should be taken from fully ripened, 
well-developed fruits, gathered from healthy, vigorous trees. The 
fruits should be cut in halves, the seeds squeezed out. and planted 
immediately, since drying retards germination. The seed bed should 
be located on naturally rich, well-drained soil. If such can not be 
found, a good dressing of stable manure should be applied and well 
worked into the soil a couple of months before planting. 

The seed beds should be laid out 4 feet wide with a 2-foot walk 
between. The seeds should be planted about one-half inch apart, in 
rows 6 inches apart, running crosswise in the bed, and covered to a 
depth of about 1 inch. It is always desirable to have the seed bed 
located near a permanent water supply, as daily attention may be 
required. The beds should never be allowed to dry out; the soil 
should be loosened from time to time and the weeds carefully removed. 
Under favorable circumstances the plants will be ready for transplant- 
ing in six to seven months, having reached a height of S to 12 inches. 

THE NURSERY. 

About the time the seed bed is planted the nursery site should be 
selected and the soil thoroughly prepared. The land should be cleared 
and all stumps and rubbish removed, after which a good application 
of stable manure should be given and the soil plowed deep. Immedi- 
ately after plowing, a crop of velvet beans should be planted, which 
will prevent the escape of any of the fertilizing properties in the 
manure and shade the soil, as well as gather nitrogen, the most expen- 
sive ingredient in fertilizers, from the air. 

A couple of months before the trees in the seed bed are ready for 
transplanting, the velvet beans should be mowed down and allowed to 
wilt, after which the vines should be plowed under. Immediately 
before planting, the land should be harrowed and thoroughly pulverized. 



10 

TRANSPLANTING. 

For transplanting-, a rainy day should be selected, if possible, in 
order to prevent wilting and to save hand watering. The seed bed 
should be thoroughly wet and the trees removed by digging down at 
one end of the bed to the lowest depth reached by the feeding roots. 
Then by thrusting a spade horizontally under the trees a considerable 
number may be removed at one time. If the tap root is excessively 
long, the lower portion may be cut off. If the soil is clayey it will 
adhere to the roots, and the trees should be moved to the nursery 
without being separated. If sand}^, the soil will shake off, and the 
roots should be wrapped in wet sacks or transported to the nursery 
in barrels containing water. 

The rows should be marked off perfectly straight, 3i feet (1 meter) 
apart, and the trees planted at a distance of 13 inches apart (i meter) 
in the row. The holes for planting may be made with a straight spade 
or a hard-wood stake 4 feet long and pointed at one end. After the 
planting the trees should be watered, if necessary, until well estab- 
lished. The nursery should be cultivated frequently so as to check the 
growth of weeds, as well as the evaporation of soil moisture. On 
poor soil it may be found necessary to apply some fertilizers in order 
to push the growth. The trees, under favorable circumstances, should 
be ready for budding in live or six months. 

SELECTION OF BUD WOOD. 

In Florida and California about 7"> varieties of oranges are recog- 
nized, but not more than 20 to 25 air generally cultivated. Only a 
few of these varieties are in marketable condition before the last part 
of November, and fewer still can be held later than April. How 
they will behave under cultivation in Porto Rico it is yet too early 
to predict; but as Porto Rico already possesses a great number of 
unknown seedling varieties, it may be assumed that by judicious selec- 
tion some varieties may be established which will be equal or even 
superior to those already known, and if in a certain locality a tree can 
be found possessing the desired characters there is no reason why it 
should not be used to propagate from. It can not be too strongl} 1- 
emphasized that every grower should be on the lookout for the best 
trees that may be found in the neighborhood, always remembering 
that bud wood cut from a branch bearing good fruit will produce 
fruit of the same quality when grown on a congenial stock under 
similar conditions of soil and climate. 

CUTTING THE SCIONS. 

In the orange the young wood is angular and of a light-green color; 
but toward maturity it becomes round and the color of the bark 
changes to a dark green. As the wood grows older the appearance 



11 



of the bark will be somewhat rough and the green color will l>e 
streaked with light gray, turning to a solid gray when fully mature 
(PI. 1, fig. 2). 

For bud wood the round, dark green wood of the present season's 
growth is generally preferable, though the older gra} T -streaked wood 
may often be used to adyantage. The scions may be cut from any 
part of the tree, except from suckers and water sprouts (that is, 
sprouts growing directly from the roots or lower part of the trunk). 
For this work a pair of hand pruning shears will be found convenient 
(fig. lr). Immediately after cutting, the wood should be divided into 




Fig. 1.— Pruning and budding tools: a, Pruning saw : '<. large pruning shears: c, hand pruning shears; 
'/, pruning knife; e, budding knife. 

lengths of about 10 inches, and the leaves and thorns at once cut oft' 
with a sharp knife, close to the wood, without injuring the bud. 

The scions should then be wrapped closely in a wet sack, which 
should again be wrapped in one or two dry sacks and put away in a 
cool place for about a week. By that time the petioles will have 
dropped off, the leaf scars healed over, and the buds will be what the 
nurserymen call k * cured, 1 ' which means that most of the reserve 
material in the scion has moved into the buds, rendering them tougher 
and increasing their longevity, thus making the process of budding 
easier and insuring better success. 



12 

BUDDING KNIFE. 

Before starting to bud, a good knife for that purpose should be 
secured (fig. le). If it should be found difficult to obtain such a knife, 
a good thin-bladed pocketknife may be used, if the sharp point is 
ground off as shown in fig. le, and it should be borne in mind that a 
sharp budding knife is the first requisite for successful budding. 
The budding knife should never be used for trimming, not even for 
cutting off a thorn, and the edge should always be as keen as a razor's. 

BUDDING TAPE. 

Budding tape may be made by dipping muslin into a hot mixture of 
3 parts of beeswax to 1 part of resin, or 2 parts of beeswax to 2 parts 
of resin and 1 part of tallow. 

A much better tape, however, can be made by dipping muslin in 
hot paraffin containing a small amount of beeswax (about 1 part bees- 
wax to S or lo parts paraffin). 

There are many grades of paraffin and they are not all suitable for 
this purpose. The paraffin sold at drug stores is generally of a white 
color with a hard brittle texture, and therefore nonadhesive. It is 
also expensive. Most of the grades used by match factories on the 
island will be found suitable; some grades, however, contain free oil 
and should be avoided on that account. The best grade for budding 
tape is soft, elastic, semitransparent, and should leave no oil nor 
greasiness on the fingers after handling. 

For melting the mixture a broad receptacle, like a frying pan, should 
be used. The muslin, about a yard long, may be folded several times 
and immersed in the melted mixture, where it should remain until 
thoroughly saturated. If the resin mixture is used the surplus material 
should be removed by drawing the cloth between two sticks held close 
together by an attendant. If the paraffin mixture is used the cloth 
should merely be allowed to drip, after which it should be unfolded 
and held in the hands a moment until cool; it may then be torn into 
strips about 12 inches wide. These strips should be nicked with a 
knife or pair of shears, at intervals of about one-third inch along one 
side, to facilitate tearing off the strips for wrapping. 

HOW TO BUD. 

The process of budding consists in cutting from the scion a piece of 
bark containing an eve or hud and inserting it under the bark of a 
tree (the stock) through an incision made with the budding knife. 
Several methods may be employed, but the most common one is shield 
budding (PI. II, fig. 1). 

To do this work the operator kneels down beside the tree to he 
budded. Taking the budding knife in the right hand, a vertical cut 



Bui. 4, Porto Rico £gr. Expt. Station, Dept. Agr. 



Plate II. 




Fig I.— Method of Shield Budding: a, Cutting the Bud; b, Bud; c, Making the 
Incision; d, Bud Partly Inserted; e, Bud Wrapped. 




Fig. 2.— Angular Sprig Budding: a, Bud; '<• Bud Inserted; c, Sprig Bud; 
d, Sprig Bud Inserted and Wrapped. 



13 

about lh inches long- is made in the bark a few inches from the ground. 
At the base of this a horizontal cut is made, giving the knife an upward 
twist to slightly raise the lower edges of the bark. 

To properly cut a bud is perhaps the most difficult operation of 
budding. The cut surface should be perfectly smooth without being 
split, and the bark should have a thin piece of the wood adhering- to 
it. To successfully accomplish this the scion is held in the left hand 
with the top end from the body, while with the knife in the right hand 
the cut is started about one-half inch above the bud, cutting deep 
enough to remove a thin piece of wood with the bark. The blade of 
the knife should form an acute angle with the scion and the cut be 
made by beginning near the base of the blade and drawing the knife 
backward with a gentle stroke. This separates the bud with a smooth 
surface and prevents it from splitting off, as it is always inclined to do. 

The bud should be inserted from below through the incision made 
in the bark, and pressed up with the point of the knife until fully 
covered by the bark. The bud is generally inserted with the eye 
pointing upward; but that is immaterial, as just as good success can 
be obtained by inserting with the eye pointing down, and it apparently 
makes no difference in the growth of the bud. Even a sprig bud may 
be inserted with the top downward. 

Immediately after inserting the bud a strip of waxed tape should be 
torn off and wrapped tightly around the stock, beginning below the 
horizontal cut and wrapping upward, letting each turn of tape slightly 
overlap the preceding one. The bud should be entirely covered, and 
if the tape is too long it will be easier to take an extra turn around 
the stock than to cut it off. 

If scions have been cut from the angular wood it will be found neces- 
sary to vary the method somewhat (PI. II, tig. 2ab). In cutting the bud 
the scion should be held with the angular edge to one side and the bud 
on the upper surface. The shield when cut off will then be as broad 
as if the wood had been round, but the eye will be placed at one side 
instead of the center. For inserting the bud a vertical incision should 
be made on the stock by turning the knife to one side, letting the 
point in under the bark deep enough to loosen it. A pocket will 
then be made into which the bud should be inserted and wrapped, as 
previously described. 

Another method often used for angular wood is what is called 
"sprig" budding (PI. II, tig. 2cd). Here a scion containing several 
buds is used. It is sharpened with a slanting, smooth cut on one side and 
inserted in a pocket-like receptacle on the stock, like the one described 
above, and should be wrapped with tape around the insertion, with 
the last two turns around the stock only, and firmly pressed down 
behind the sprig. 



14 

The buds should be left undisturbed for ten days to two weeks, in 
which time they will have united with the stock. The tape should 
then be unwrapped from the top far enough down to expose the eye, 
but should be left intact below the eye, which will insure keeping the 
bud in place if not well enough united, and will do no harm, since it 
drops off in a short time. 

In a week's time after unwrapping, the buds should be again 
inspected, and all that are found to be green should be "forced." 
That is, the sap flow in the tree should be arrested immediately above 
the point of budding, in order that most of the sap may flow to the 
inserted bud. 

FORCING THE BUDS. 

Forcing may be accomplished by partly cutting the tree off above 
the bud and lapping the top over, which method is preferred by many 
nurserymen, though it has many disadvantages. It is exceedingly 
difficult to force dormant buds in that way; the lapped tops will 
always be in the way for working; there is no stock left to which the 
bud may be tied, and therefore stakes will have to be used. 

Another and better method is girdling (PI. Ill, fig. la), which con- 
sists in cutting the bark all around the stock about 2 inches above the 
bud, and making another similar cut one-half to three-fourths inch 
higher up. Then by making a vertical cut between the two, a ring of 
bark can be peeled off very readily. Some nurserymen cut the stock 
entirely off after the bud has united, but that is bad practice and 
should be avoided. 

Two to three weeks after girdling the trees should again be gone 
over and all young growth below the girdle should be cut off, leaving 
the bud only. This process should be repeated every two weeks until 
no more growth appears. When the bud has grown to a length of 4 
to 5 inches it should be tied to the stock in order to direct a straight 
growth and to prevent its being broken off (PI. Ill, fig. lb). One or 
more tyings will be necessary later on, always with the object of a 
straight tree in view. If the buds grow up more than 3 feet high 
without branching the tips should be nipped off in order to induce 
branching. 

After the bud shoots have reached a diameter of one-half inch or 
more at the base the old stock should be cut off close above the union. 
This may be done with a pair of sharp pruning shears. The cut should 
be slanting from the point of union downward (PI. Ill, fig. lc); thus 
when healed over no scar will be left and the tree will be straight, not 
even showing the place of union. After the stock scar has healed over 
the tree will be ready for transplanting. 



3ul. 4, Porto Rico Agr. Expt. Station, Dept. Agr. 



Plate III. 




Fiq. 1.— Forcing the Buds: a, Bud Unwrapped and Stock Girdled; >>■ Bud Tied Uf 

e, Stock Cut Off. 




Fig. 2.— Crown Grafting with Grafts Inserted. 



15 

PLANTING A GROVE. 

PREPARING THE LAND. 

In the best orange sections in Florida the land is always cleared of 
all brush and stumps and plowed once or twice before planting. In 
Dade County, where the soil is very rocky, it was the practice a few 
years ago to cut down the large trees, which, together with the small 
brush, was burned, leaving the stumps in the ground. The rows 
were then marked off and holes dug or blasted and the trees planted 
at once. Prospective planters figured out that a small tree would 
need but a few feet of soil the first year or two, and by clearing a 
space around each tree, increasing it year b} r year, the cost would be 
distributed and the tree grow as well. That, however, was soon found 
to be a fallacy, and now the land is all well cleared and prepared 
before planting, and this method will no doubt be found the most 
economical in Porto Rico. 

STAKING OUT THE GROVE. 

If undisturbed b} T disease or climatic influence there is practically 
no limit to the age of an orange tree, and in Porto Rico the seedling 
trees attain a diameter of 1 foot or more, with a spread of 25 to 35 
feet. The budded tree will probably not reach the same v size, but a 
space of not less than 20 by 25 feet should always be given, and prob- 
ably more space may be found advisable. 

For a small grove procure as many stakes as there will be places for 
trees. The stakes should be straight, not less than -i feet long, and 
painted white at one end. The first line (base line) should be meas- 
ured off running parallel with the general direction of one side of the 
field and as close to that side as practicable, and stakes placed the 
desired distance apart. Next a square corner should be established 
thus: Begin at one end of the base line and measure off 80 feet along 
that line, placing a stake at the finishing point; then start from the 
same end of the base line and measure off 60 feet at a right angle 
thereto, and set another stake; the distance in a straight line between 
these stakes should be loo feet. The 60-foot stake may need to be 
moved slightly from its trial position; and when the distance is just 
60 feet from the base line and 100 feet from the first stake the lines 
will be exactly at a right angle with each other. Continue the line 
through the 60-foot stake to the opposite side of field and square that 
corner in the same way. The other two lines may then be laid off 
and the corners squared likewise. Stakes may then be placed at the 
desired distance on those four lines, and no more measurements will 
be required. The rest of the stakes may be placed by one man, 
while two men direct him by sighting from each side. 



16 

"With great care a large orchard may be staked out in the same 
way, by starting at one corner of the field and measuring off no more 
at one time than a man can sight across. The lines of the measured- 
off sections will then be the base line for the adjoining sections. 

The following table gives the number of trees per acre when set 
different distances apart: 

Distances and number of trees per acre, for orange trees. 



Distance apart. 



20 feet by 20 feet 
20 feet by 25 feet 
25 feet bv 25 feet 
25 feet bv 30 feet 
30 feet bv 30 feet 



Number 
of trees. 



107 
86 
69 
59 
48 



DIGGING THE HOLES. 

It is also economical to enrich the soil before planting, and in Porto 
Rico it will doubtless pay to dig large holes where the trees are to be 
planted, which should then be filled with alternate layers of compost 
and soil. Leaf mold, or even dry grass, may be used instead of com- 
post. The holes should be allowed to stand six to eight weeks before 
planting the trees, in order that the soil may settle and the heat which 
will be generated by the compost may be allowed to escape. 

After digging the holes the stakes should be placed exactly in the 
same position as before, which may be accomplished by using a tree 
setter. A tree setter may be made from a straight board 8 to 10 feet 
long and about 4 inches wide, with a hole near one end and a notch 
near the other as well as one in the middle. The tree setter should be 
placed on the ground with the middle notch placed against a marking 
stake which has been set in place by sighting as already described. 
A wooden peg should be inserted through the hole in the board and 
another in the notch at the other end. Then by swinging the board 
out of position the marking stake maj be removed and the hole dug. 
By swinging the board into position again the stake can be replaced 
precisely. The tree setter should again be used when planting the 
trees. 

PLANTING THE TREES. 

When ready for planting the trees may be taken out of the nursery 
in a manner similar to that followed in removing them from the seed 
bed. If a ball of dirt can be removed with the roots it will be found 
of advantage to do so. If not, the roots should be carefulty covered 
to prevent diying out. If the planting is done in the rain}^ season, as 
it ought to be, the trees ma} T be left untrimmed, but it will usually be 
found best to cut off part of the top as well as most of the leaves in 
order to check transpiration. 



17 

If a ball of soil adheres to the roots, the tree may be set in the hole 
to the right depth and the soil thrown in and firmed down. But if 
the roots are bare, the tree should be carefully set down, the roots 
spread out, and the soil worked in among them with the hands, after 
which a generous amount of water should be poured on in order to get 
every root and rootlet in contact with the soil. 

The tree should never be planted deeper than it was in the nursery. 
After the soil has been firmed around the roots the collar of the tree 
should stand at least 2 inches above the level of the field. The bed, 
extending about a foot around the tree, should then be made a few 
inches higher, with a hollow in the middle, in order to retain water. 
The tree should be watered, if necessary, during the first six to eight 
weeks after planting. A heavy mulch of grass or any other similar 
material applied immediately around the tree will help to preserve the 
moisture. 

CULTIVATION AND MANURING. 

The amount and kind of cultivation required by a certain crop will 
depend chiefly upon the class of soil, in connection with the climatic 
condition.s. 

The principal objects of cultivation are to aerate the soil, conserve 
the soil moisture, and destroy the weeds. When it rains the surface 
soil will be packed, preventing the air from coming in contact with the 
roots, as well as allowing the soil moisture to evaporate. By breaking 
and pulverizing the surface soil the capillary movement of the soil 
moisture will be arrested and evaporation checked. A large amount 
of growing vegetation will evaporate more moisture than the bare soil, 
and should therefore be kept down throughout the dry season, leaving 
all the moisture for the growing crop. 

Whenever the rainfall is sufficient to more than supply the growing 
crop, another crop of vegetation may be grown between the rows and 
plowed under later, thereby improving the physical condition and 
increasing the water-holding capacity. The crops best suited for 
'"'green manuring" are those belonging to the leguminous family, as 
they are capable, when supplied with proper root bacteria, of obtain- 
ing nitrogen from the air and converting it into available plant food. 

In Florida, where oranges are grown on sand} 7 soil and the rainfall 
not very evenly distributed, the groves are cultivated frequently 
through the winter and spring (the dry season), then in the early sum- 
mer, or at the beginning of the rainy season, the spaces between the 
rows are planted with velvet beans, cowpeas, or beggar weed, which 
is allowed to grow all summer. Often one crop is mowed and cured 
for ha\- and another crop will grow up. A small strip on each side of 
the tree is always cultivated and kept clean from weeds, even through 
the rainy season. Late in the fall the land is plowed, turning under 
32551— No. 4—04 2 



18 

all the vegetable material; this, however, not before the crop has 
wilted, as it is generally believed that the plowing under of a green 
crop is not favorable to plant growth. 

For cultivation, such implements as a toothed harrow, Acme harrow, 
spading harrow, and disk harrow are used, and the weeds are removed 
from around the trees with a hand hoe. 

Crops, such as corn, vegetables, and pineapples, are not generally 
grown in orange groves, as they deplete the soil of fertilizing material 
necessary for the trees; and if heavily fertilized with organic nitrogen, 
such as is found in stable manure, dried blood, cotton-seed meal, tank- 
age, etc., the orange tree is almost mi re to contract the disease called 
"die-back." On Porto Rican soils it would also be safest not to use 
organic nitrogen in large quantities on orange trees until experiments 
shall have shown the effect. 

WORKING OVER OLD TREES. 

As orange growing in Porto Rico progresses from the semiwild con- 
ditions of to-day to up-to-date methods, it will become more and more 
apparent that the seedling must give way to the budded tree, and the 
sooner the seedling tree is worked over the more profitable it will be 
for the grower. It may seem wasteful to cut down a large tree bear- 
ing a comparatively good grade of fruit, but it is astonishing in how 
short a time the same tree will bear as large a crop of much liner fruit 
after working over. 

There are several methods of working over old trees, and all of them 
require considerable skill, though some require much less time than 
others. Among these are crown grafting, top grafting, top budding, 
dormant budding, inarching, and bridge grafting. 

CROWN GRAFTING. 

In this method the tree is sawed off close to the ground, a scion of 
well-ripened wood 5 to 6 inches long and about three-eighths inch in 
diameter is then sharpened by a slanting cut on one side, similar to a 
sprig bud, and inserted on the stump between the bark and the wood, 
with the cut surface against the latter. If a concave place on the tree 
is selected and the bark carefully loosened with the budding knife it 
will stand the pressure of the scion without breaking and no wrapping 
will be necessary. On a large stump four to six scions should be 
inserted (PI. Ill, lig. 2), and the whole top covered with wet clay, 
after which moist soil should be heaped up around, leaving but one 
e} r e of the scion projecting (lig. 2). A small amount of trash on the 
top will prevent the soil as well as the scion from drying out. In 
three or four weeks the scion will start growth and most of the soil 
should be removed. This method is probably easier than any of the 
following, but more time is lost in making a new tree. 



Bui. 4, Porto Rico Agr. Expt. Station, Dept. Agr 



Plate IV. 




Fig. 1.— Tree Sawed Off for Top Grafting. 




Fig. 2.— Cleft Grafting: "■ Showing the Cleft; 
'». Grafts Inserted. 



19 



TOP GRAFTING. 

The top of the tree is sawed off above the lowest branching-, leaving 
a few inches of the lower limbs (PI. IV, fig. 1) into which grafts may 
be inserted in a manner similar to the one described above. The 
grafts must be wrapped with twine or waxed tape and covered with 
a grafting wax or a mixture of wet clay and cow dung/' 

A better method for grafting in the top is cleft grafting* (PI. IV, 
tig. 2). Here the limb is split through the center with a machete or 
sharp knife driven in with a hammer to the depth of about 2 inches. 
After withdrawing the knife a w T edge should be inserted to keep the 
cleft open for the reception of the scion. The scion is then sharpened 
wedge-shaped by a slanting cut on each side, making one edge of the 
wedge a little thinner than the other. The wedge-shaped scion is then 

















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Fig. 2.— Grafts covered up. 

inserted into the cleft w r ith the thinner edge of the wedge toward the 
center and the thicker side even w y ith the bark of the limb. This will 
bring the growing tissue of scion and stock in close contact, which is 
absolutely essential for successful grafting. If the limb is small, one 
scion only should be inserted, and the limb firmly wrapped with twine, 
after which the whole top should be covered with grafting wax. If 
the limb is 3 inches or more in diameter the wrapping ma}^ be dis- 
pensed with, as the pressure will be great enough without. 

« A good grafting wax may be made by melting together 2 pounds resin, 1 pound 
beeswax, and \ pound tallow. The melted mixture should be poured into a pail of 
cold water, after which it may be pulled and worked until nearly white. For work- 
ing the mixture the hands should be greased to prevent sticking. 



20 

TOP BUDDING. 

This method, while it requires more time, is after all the most satis- 
factory, as the new top will be formed in a very short time. The tree 
should be pruned so as to form a very open and symmetrical head, 
often requiring- the removal of more than half of the branches (PI. V). 
The pruning cut should always be clean and smooth and as close to 
the main branch as possible, in order that the wound may heal over 
and leave no unsightly scar. If a limb is chopped off with a machete 
and a stub of a few inches left, decay will usually gain entrance and 
the healing- process will be slow. For pruning, the saw and shears 
(fig. 1) will be found very convenient. The cutting off of a large 
amount of growing wood will check the growth of the tree so as to 
tighten the bark, which will delay budding two or three weeks. Buds 
should therefore be inserted immediately after pruning. Often, how- 
ever, the bark on the older branches will not slip, even if the tree is 
growing vigorously, and another method of budding will have to be 
employed. 

DORMANT BUDDING. 

As the name indicates, budding may be performed while the stock 
is dormant. A vertical cut is made parallel with the tree, loosening a 
narrow slice of bark about 1^ inches long. Then, with a horizontal 
cut, I inch of the top end should be removed, leaving a bare space on 
the stock i inch long and a flap at the lower end | inch long. A shield 
bud is then cut in the usual way and inserted with the lower end under 
the loose piece of bark, by which it is held in place (PI. VI, fig. 1). 
In wrapping, the operator should be careful not to displace the bud. 

In about three weeks the budded branches may be girdled above the 
union, after which all the young growth below should be removed 
every week until no more appears. When the buds reach a size of 
finch in diameter the branches should be cut off with a slanting stroke 
close above the union, and the new tree will be formed. Such a tree 
will generally bear fruit two years after budding, and if well cared 
for will bear a large crop in four or five 3 T ears. 

INARCHING AND BRIDGE GRAFTING. 

These two methods are seldom used in citrus propagation, but are 
often resorted to in case of accidents to the tree. If the tree is girdled 
by ants or the bark becomes diseased it may be restored by bridging 
the wound either with scions or with sprouts from the roots. 

All the diseased bark should be removed and the edges of the girdle 
trimmed to healthy tissue. Scions of well-matured wood a few inches 
longer than the girdle should then be sharpened at both ends, cutting 
with a slanting stroke on one side. The ends should then be inserted 
above and below the girdle, through incisions made in the bark 
similar to those emplo} T ed in shield budding (PI. VI, tig. 2). All the 
insertions should then be wrapped with cord and carefully covered 
with grafting wax, and the exposed wood at the girdle should be cov- 



Bui. 4, Porto Rico Agr. Expt. Station, Dept. Agr. 



Plate V. 




: ».> fr W ilt 



Tree Pruned for Top Budding and Branches Cut Off Immediately Above the 
Buds to Show Places of Insertion. 



Bui. 4, Porto Rico Agr. Expt. Station, Dept. Agr 



Plate VI. 




Fiq. 1.— Dormant Budding: o, Bud; b, Piece of Bark Removed; c, Bud Inserted. 




Fiq. 2.— Bridge Grafting and Inarching: a,b,c, Bridge Grafts; 
d, Inarch. 



21 

ered with girdle paint, as described in Circular No. 4 a of this station. 

Whenever a tree with healthy roots becomes partly or entirely girdled, 

sprouts will always spring up from the roots. Those sprouts when 

young can be cut, bent, and inserted above the girdle, and will grow 

very readily if held in close contact with the stock. For that purpose 

it should be tied to the stock with a cord and a line wire nail driven 

in at the point of insertion, after which it should be wrapped in the 

usual way. 

MARKETING. 

A casual glance at the market quotations will show that Porto Rican 
oranges sell for much less than the Florida product, and it would be 
interesting to know why. 

The commission man is apt to blame the packer, the packer will 
blame the shipping facilities as well as the grower, and the grower 
will blame them all. It should not be forgotten, however, that a great 
deal of blame rests with the grower himself. Most of the fruit 
shipped at the present time comes from seedling trees growing semi- 
wild within a few miles of the military roads or seaports. While 
some of the fruit is of extra good quality, a large percentage is 
inferior in flavor. The color is usuall}' fairly good, but the peel is 
inclined to be rather rough. In picking, the stem is often pulled off 
and the fruit dropped to the ground. It is then transported several 
miles in sacks or baskets on horseback, or in bulk in ox carts, over a 
more or less rough road to the packing house. The packers do not 
always use the utmost care, and, of course, proper grading would be a 
difficult process under the circumstances. But more careful culling 
would certainly be advisable. 

In shipping it takes at the present time from six to twelve days 
from the time of entering the steamer to the time of unloading, 
according to the port from which it is shipped. The ships have no 
cold-storage facilities, and the fruit is stored with other classes of 
goods. The foregoing will readily show that the fault is not with the 
quality of the fruit, and if the picking, curing, packing, and shipping 
is properly done, better prices ma} r be expected. It will, however, 
require the best efforts of the commission man to overcome the pres- 
ent bad reputation. 

PICKING AND CURING. 

The fruit should never be pulled off, but should be separated from 
the branch by clipping the stem about one-eighth of an inch above the 
fruit. The picked fruit should never be dropped to the ground, but 
gathered in a sack or cloth-lined basket carried by the picker, and 
should then be emptied into shallow boxes or baskets. The fruit 
should always be handled as carefully as possible, remembering that 
everv bruise may cause decav. 



" Control of the Brown Ant in Orange Orchards. 



22 

The appearance of the fruit when ready to pick will vary with each 
variety. It may be said, however, always pick before fully colored 
up, but never so early that the fruit will not ripen en route, as a green 
orange will never sell well, regardless of other qualities. 

Picking should never be done on a rainy da} T nor in the morning 
before the dew has dried. The fruit should always be "cured"" (that 
is, the surplus water in the rind should be allowed to evaporate), 
which may be done by storing in a well ventilated house. The ideal 
way for this drying would be to spread the fruit out on shelves or on 
the floor so as to facilitate evaporation. That, however, is not prac- 
ticable, as it necessitates extra handling, which will bruise the fruit 
more or less as well as increase the amount of work. The boxes or 
baskets containing the fruit may be removed from the field and stored 
in such a manner as to leave ample room for ventilation. If the sur- 




Fig 3. — Orange sizer. 

rounding air is fairly dry two or three da}'S will usually be sufficient 
for curing; otherwise, more time may be required. 

GRADING. 

Every variet}^ of fruit should be kept separate. Seedling trees 
should be graded according to the quality of fruit and given a number 
or mark. All the trees bearing fruit of the same quality should receive 
the same mark. The fruit from trees with different marks should be 
kept separate through the subsequent processes, and may then be 
packed like distinct varieties. 

SIZING. 

This work may be performed by machines of more or less intricate 
construction. The simplest orange sizer (fig. 3) consists of a triangular 
box, open at one corner, which is set inclined with the open corner 



23 




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24 

downward. An inclined plane should then be made consisting of two 
smooth pieces of wood about 2 inches in diameter and about 4 feet 
long, resting- on two pairs of legs 15 inches and 27 inches high. The 
pieces should be nailed at one end onto the longer pair of legs with a 
distance of 1 inch between, and at the other end onto the shorter pair 
with a distance of 6 inches between. This runway should be placed 
under the triangular box so that oranges dropping from the opening 
will roll down its incline until they fall through. The distance between 
the pieces of the runwa}" should be measured and every variation 
of i inch should be marked. The smaller fruit will drop through 
where the opening is approximately 2^ inches, and the very largest at 
4 to 4^ inches. Cloth-lined troughs should be placed underneath the 
sizer at intervals to catch the dropping fruit and convey it to boxes. 

PACKING. 

Oranges should be packed in boxes of standard size. The ones used 
in Florida are 12^ by 12^- by 27 inches, outside measure, with a parti- 
tion in the middle. The packer should carefully examine eveiy fruit 
and discard any that is in the least bruised, discolored, or deformed. 
The fruit should then be wrapped in tissue paper, which is sold espe- 
cially for that purpose, and carefully packed in layers (tig. 4)- The 
top layer should project about f inch above the sides of the box, which 
will make the packing solid after the cover is nailed on under pressure. 
Every box should be stencilled on the end, stating the number of 
fruit, the grade or variet}^, and, if possible, the packer's name and 
address. 

SHIPPING. 

No fruit should be shipped out of Porto Rico unless it is of the very 
best quality and has been carefully graded and packed. A box of 
fruit generally sells in the market on the merit of the poorest speci- 
mens contained in it. A shipment of fruit does not, however, always 
sell on its merit, but will often bring a good price, even if it is slightly 
inferior, because of its good name, attained through many 3 r ears of 
careful grading and honest packing. Therefore, grade closety, pack 
carefully, and ship no inferior fruit. 



LE M' '08 



